PhD Thesis

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An anthropological study on traditional astronomers of Bangladesh
(University of Dhaka, 2018-12-18) Monjur-Ul-Haider, Mohammad
Bat hunting and illnesses: A case of Mahanta community in Bangladesh
(©University of Dhaka, 2024-02-19) Khan, Abdul Khaleque Md. Dawlat
This dissertation explores the different aspects of bat hunting practices in Bangladesh. Based on a year of ethnographic fieldwork in a hunting community in the west-central part of Bangladesh, I explore the community’s beliefs about where the bat is a beneficial bird, their religious and cultural beliefs in different phases of bat hunting, and their relevance. They perform three types of rituals- curative, preventive, and initiation, and the meaning of these rituals is symbolized to them as sanctified, sacred hunting apparatuses and good luck in initiation that brings success in hunting. The hunting community people have their own etiological explanations of illnesses and illnesses categorization: ‘daktari osuk’ and ‘kobiraji osuk’, where there is no relationship between illnesses and bat hunting in their etiological explanations. On the other hand, they use bat meat and their limbs to treat several illnesses, such as asthma, heart disease, deficiency of calcium, and night fever, and also to get sexual vigor. The community people hunt bats as an economic endeavor born out of the seasonal dearth of conventional sources of income, as well as the socio-cultural fabric of the community; it shows the interplay within the community people. This dissertation contributes to the area of anthropology of hunting that highlights the different aspects of bat hunting practices in Bangladesh, in terms of beliefs on the bat, and beliefs and rituals practices in the different phases of bat hunting and symbolic meaning associated with these, functional views of the hunting including division of labor, gender roles and social solidarity, and etiological explanations of bat-borne illnesses and health-seeking.
Beliefs and Attitudes towards Infertility and Assisted Reproductive Technologies in Bangladesh: An Anthropological Study
(University of Dhaka, 2021-03-08) Habib, Sumaiya
With the rapid increase of global infertility, we observe vast development of assisted reproductive technologies. However, this western technological medication has formed and shaped into a “localization” (Inhorn and Balen 2012) process, that it has been accepted according to the cultural practices and belief system of the existing society. In countries like Bangladesh, where society is actively pronatal and infertility is often regarded as curse, not as a biological constrain; the recognition of the specific cause of infertility and its solution through assisted technological intervention faces socio-cultural, economic and psychological challenges. This study has observed the penetration of assisted reproductive technologies like, IVF, ICSI etc. in the context of Bangladeshi patient’s culture, belief system, knowledge and relationship to their society. Here, children are not only the related to love and affiliation, they are valuable as considered as the socio-economic security for the old parents. Moreover, religiously people belief that raising children, mothering and parenting are the most important duties of social life. The socio-psychological consequences of infertility in Bangladesh includes, family disruption, extra-marital relations, stress, suicidal attempts, vulnerable socio-economic status etc. Customarily, women suffer the most, as traditionally in the patriarchal practice, women are blamed for any reproductive failure. Thus, the notion of infertility is stigmatized and so it’s treatments are. In 2001 Bangladesh experienced first successful birth of IVF triplets. After that, the assisted reproductive treatments had been introduced in many private clinics. This study has explained how infertility and these western treatments are experienced by the infertile people. This thesis is written based on the field experience between the years 2016-2017. The research followed semi-structured questionnaire and separate checklists for the in-depth interviews with various categories of respondents (in total 70). Meticulously, the reflexive position of the researcher has intervened the data collection and analysis as a whole. Though, women are the core subject to reproduction, who experience the treatments and agonies more directly, they became the first choice of interrogation. However, the research has also indicated the situation of men with an infertile conjugality in the patriarchal society, Bangladesh. However, their kin relations, doctors and other naturally conceived people were also became the research respondents to understand the holistic attitude towards infertility and assisted reproductive technologies. The thesis demonstrates the way in which Bangladeshi infertile couples are represented and culturally defined. The subjective experiences of the infertile female, male, doctors and others indicates that the class, gender and belief system work as a encompassing force that shapes their living and understanding of infertility and it’s biomedical treatment. Though, urbanization and globalization has delayed the age of mothering (mostly in urban settings), still motherhood is a normative behaviour in the context of Bangladesh. Thus, the anomalies to the reproductive order make worried not only the woman but also her family (natal and in-law). However, it is the infertile women who becomes the most vulnerable in this situation. But, they does not act as passive victim of the situation. Most of the IVF seeking women showed their agency by choosing and changing medication and even imposing husbands and family to support them either directly or strategically. Many of them maintain close relations with co-hearts who can share similar problems and ask for advice to resolve different social taunts and hinders. However, still the limited knowledge of reproductive health and the uneven power relation between doctor-patients play role in the medication for infertility. But, it was interesting to notice that women are more optimistic to the assisted reproductive treatments than that of their husbands. The responses of the husbands towards infertility and assisted reproductive technologies are more passive, though they suffer psychologically no lesser than their wives. These emotional breakdowns constrains the conjugal bond and hampers their socialization, family tie, income and even occupational success. Moreover, the cycle of IVF and other options cost not only money but also relationships in many cases. The procedure of assisted reproductive treatment has challenged the traditional practice of pregnancy, thus it is stigmatized and kept hidden. As few forms of treatments are prohibited among the Muslims, the treatments became more stigmatized and questionable. Though, many of the infertile people are desperate to have children (with any option fit for them), shaping their mind that mothering is the precious opportunity of life. And, most of the IVF seeker do not consult religious expert to understand the ethical issues of it, though IVF experts and doctors are conscious about it. Depending on biological problem and affordability people travel for better treatment of infertility. Thus, medical tourism has offered new avenue for the patients who cannot seek their treatment in the cultural settings here in Bangladesh. However, the high expenses of these western treatments obstructs the solution to the fertility problem of the poor people, though they suffer the most. It is observed that though fertility is a human right, but the government and non-government agents have not subsidized the expenses of infertility treatments. For that reason, mostly all the infertility centers are capital city based. Thus, women with no financial support face socio-psychological and economic vulnerability with infertility. However, class is not only the only obstacle to this biomedical treatment. Many are not interest because of fear of wrong treatment or mingling wrong semen and egg. And still, many lack the information that there are biomedical treatments for infertility. Even, the successful IVF parents do not want to tell naturally conceived people about their experiences or disclose their identity, because of the cultural understanding of infertility and its biomedical solutions. This research will contribute in the anthropological studies on reproduction, health, gender and culture and technology studies. The overall findings provide insights on the subjective experiences of infertile male and female and their struggle with assisted reproductive technologies. And concludes that with a stigmatized notion they search for a solution from infertility; show agency and strategic way out in the medical system, where infertile people have little and no access.
Border culture in the northern region of Bangladesh: An anthropological study
(University of Dhaka, 2018-04-17) Sumon, Nur Mohammud Sajjadul Hoque
Bangladesh and India share a common and well demarcated land boundary, which came into existence, as a result of partition of the erstwhile Britain-ruled Indian subcontinent. These countries are the end product of partition of Indian subcontinent. In the case of Bangladesh-India border, religion is one of the important determinants to define border culture. But in this study entitled “Border Culture in the Northern Region of Bangladesh: An Anthropological Study” [this titled dissertation has been prepared for the fulfillment of the Degree of Doctor of Philosophy (Ph D) in Anthropology, Faculty of Social Sciences, University of Dhaka, Bangladesh] at Diar Manik Chak (DMC) border area of Bangladesh, it is not so important how it is in the case of other parts of the border areas of these two neighboring countries because the border Lalgola of India, which is connected with Diar Manik Chak (DMC) border of Bangladesh is also Muslim dominant borderland. People living in the border areas of Bangladesh have developed a unique culture based on their occupation. The question of legality in this regard always remains a concern. Illegal trading is found in most landlocked countries and also in countries surrounded by water bodies. The research, therefore, tried to reveal the types of people, trading network and associated problems. Indeed, an attempt has been made to understand the livelihood pattern of border people as well as the concept of “border culture” in terms of the culture of illegal trading. By keeping this in mind, this research has been conducted at Diar Manik Chak (DMC) border village under Char Asariadoh Union of Godagari upzila in Rajshahi district of northern Bangladesh. The area was selected because of the extent of illegal border trading compared to other places. This research area is within a range of 6 to 7 km from international boundary line of the northern region of Bangladesh. This study was carried out on DMC border area for a period of six months in 2014 and 2015. Both rainy (from June – August, 2014) and dry seasons (September, December, 2014 and January, 2015) have been selected to understand the cultural and economic activities of the study area. Additional two weeks in April, 2016 spent for conducting the study; especially to observe the illegal border trade. This is a descriptive research where anthropological ethnographic investigation process is followed with reflexivity during conducting the study. Here the techniques and tools of qualitative research method like vi observation, discussion with the key informants and administration of unstructured interview schedule according to emic perspective were used during conducting the field study of this research. Purposive sampling was used in this research. Respondents were selected purposively and the unit of this research was the border community. Seven (07) respondents were considered as Key Informants and fifty (50) respondents were taken for unstructured interview. Both male and female are different in terms of age, religion, gender, educational qualification and occupation. Respondents’ occupation indicates that significant number [5 key informants (71.42%) out of 7 and 27 (54%) out of 50 respondents of unstructured interview] of border people of present study area is involved in illegal border trading. Moreover, secondary sources like journals, books, periodicals, newspapers, internet sources and relevant research reports have been reviewed extensively for this study. Presently, the border dwellers at DMC have territorial concept as well as territorial identity. They maintain the border on the basis of ‘nationalism’. Partition plays pivotal role in course of time to create the territorial concept and identity among the borderlanders. It plays an important role to open up new economic opportunities for both legal and illegal trading. Increasing number of family members, failure of earning enough through agriculture, risky but less labor and easy money through illegal trading along with other causes encourages the DMC dwellers (both Muslim and Hindu males and females) to do the border trading, which is marked as part of life and most important livelihood indeed. Trading is maintaining by the people of this border with diversified norms and values which makes the illegal trading distinctive from other occupations and ultimately generates a different border culture in DMC. There are impacts of neighboring Indian Lalgola border in different ways on DMC border. Illegal trading is connected with two states and it is very natural that it bears representation of both the countries and two borders cultures. That is why it can be stated that the border culture of DMC is a mix culture in terms of different trading related occupations. The border culture of Diar Manik Chak is not simple. It is complex, especially in terms of occupation. It can be stated that the culture of Diar Manik Chak is homogenous in terms of religion as it is a Muslim dominated border area and ‘shared culture’ is prevailing in terms of border trading occupation in DMC. Illegal trading is an old occupation and it has its own distinctiveness and importance for livelihood, which shapes border people culturally different vii from the mainland of the country. Illegal border trade- an informal economy became the ‘way of life’ of the border dwellers of Diar Manik Chak which has both positive and negative dimensions. In this dissertation, the first chapter is essentially introductory and outlines the objectives and rationale of the study. The chapter two specifies the literature review, the chapter three theoretical approach and the chapter four focuses on methodology and data analysis, duration of the field work, criteria for selection of the study area, unit of the study, field work experiences and limitations of the study. The chapter five and six made an attempt to give descriptions of the study area and Bangladesh land border respectively. The chapter seven and eight covers the glimpses of partition and its aftermath and partition & the beginning of illegal border trade respectively. The chapter nine reflects border culture of the study area. The chapter ten deals with illegal trading and border culture of the study area and its impact on national and international levels. The final chapter, chapter eleven summarizes the findings of the study and draws a conclusion.
Challenges and issues of Water Management in Bangladesh: Anthropological Study
(University of Dhaka, 2021-03-01) Rahman, Md. Azizur
Undertaking the prime objective of exploring the major challenges of water management in Bangladesh, present study identified various geographic, socio-economic and environmental factors all are in coherent with anthropological aspect that shape the water management issues of Bangladesh. Water resource management has been focal point in Bangladesh for last few decades, but with the increasing conflict around the distribution of water to contending demands, and mounting water stress due to climate change, there is now a critical demand for social equity in water resource management. The present study mainly focused and concerned with the status and trend of these issues principally impact of Farakka barrage and it’s impinging on stakeholders. This paper is divided into eight consecutive chapters. Chapter one deals with the main problems being investigated and discussed, the aims and rationale of the study. Chapter two involves a critical review of some vital concepts and theories relating to this study. Chapter three discusses about research design and methodology. Chapter four explores about the socio-economic and environmental features of the study area Char Ashariadaha of Rajshahi. The chapter five consists of discussion on policy and stakeholder mapping. Chapter six talks about riverine ecosystem, lives and livelihood, and development interventions in the study area. Chapter seven discusses about major challenges of water management. Chapter eight includes concluding remarks and a way forward. Deriving from anthropological tradition of research, present study uses observation, interview, key informant and other tools and techniques of anthropological fieldwork for collecting in-depth data. It finds out major issues of water management in the study area from holistic view. Water crisis is predominant among other problems which results from Farakka barrage in dry season. Farakka barrage has been able to tremendously influence the lives and livelihood of local people in Char Ashariadaha. Its degree of impact ranges from dry out of local water bodies to force occupational groups shifting river based livelihood option. Central to the impacts of Farakka barrage, decline of agricultural production further exacerbates many social crises directly or indirectly connected with hydraulic aspects of social life in the locality. Traditionally local people of the study area are totally depending on Padma River. Now Padma is likely going to be a curse for their livelihood, frequent flood washes way their assets and destroying the natural species. Before Farakka a lot of fishermen and boatmen were working there now mostly disappeared, shifted their work to other field. A good number of rickshaw pullers of Dhaka city come from Rajshahi to survive. Critically reviewing water treaty of 1996, water act, and other legislative institutions, this study endeavored to mapping out stakeholder analysis with a view to pick up local perspective from the prism of bottom-up approach of anthropological research to reach at the heart of the problem and find out an effective way out. It argues that vital point of water crisis and management in the locality resulted from weaker negotiation with India for ensuring equal distribution of Ganges/ Padma’s water in dry season. Other challenges of water crisis management includes immoral political atmosphere, nepotism, unrestricted and unsustainable extractions of ground water etc. Flood and flesh flood induced by gate opening of Farakka barrage in rainy season, drought in dry spell, and political factionalism aggravate water mismanagement in the locality. This study identified that local people have to suffer from water shortage in dry season. This shortage is derived from two important sources; natural cause and anthropogenic reason. Underground water level decreased followed by less precipitation in winter season is very common according to Bengali seasonality. Thus, construction of barrage like Farakka for impeding water flow into Bangladesh is proliferating water shortage in the community. This unusual shortage of both ground and surface water brings about many adverse impacts; drinking water crisis, sanitation water shortage, irrigation water scarcity, and all coupled with lower production and increased livestock and human disease. Present study identifies two types of entitlement on ground of dimension; local entitlement and national entitlement. Despite having available water in natural water bodies, local poor and marginalized people have limited access to water which is lack of local entitlement. Contrasting to this, Padma River has natural water availability in dry season, but India impedes water flow and control over Bangladesh’s accessibility to water which is lack of national level entitlement. It argues that water bodies in Char Ashariadaha comprise of complex political ecology that is not only governed by local elite but centralized political system has direct and indirect influence. Rich farmers play despotic role by controlling over natural water bodies; impeding natural water flow and making poor and marginalized farmers to depend on their will for getting irrigation water. Hence, water management system goes under political ecology, water governance runs under hydraulic despotism concept, and water use rights is protected under entitlement approach produce a multidimensional crisis that is difficult to deal from single lens. Present study propose two critical ways for these issues; a multidisciplinary comprehensive research model should be taken to account the versatility of water crisis, and a multi-stakeholder based intervention and action group for the effective implementation of the model. However, informed policy making to meet policy goals and make local people aware of their significance and impact is an essential requirement of a dynamic water management policy in Bangladesh. Present study argues that as the water management becomes progressively complex with various dimensions in rural areas like Char Ashariadaha, further research should be conducted from in-depth anthropological insights and from social sciences with a view to ensure bottom-up knowledge venture instead of top-down system for local people engagement in decision making process regarding water crisis management.
Changing agrarian structure in Bangladesh shimulia : a study of a periurban village
(©University of Dhaka, 2024-03-19) Arefeen, Helaluddin Khan Shamsul
Child Labour in Weaving Industries in Bangladesh: A Study of Benarashi Palli of Mirpur, Dhaka
(2024-03-19) Khaled, Md.
Coastal Community, Poverty and Climate Change Adaptation: An Anthropological Study of Bayer Char Community
(©University of Dhaka, 2024-03-12) Noman, Abu Saleh Mohammad
Bangladesh, a topography of flat and low-lying densely populated country, is one of the most climate vulnerable countries in the world and will become even more so from the perspective of its disadvantageous geographic location, high levels of poverty, climate change impacts and adaptation to it, reliance of significant numbers of livelihoods on climate sensitive sectors specially agriculture and fishing. The people of coastal-char area of Bangladesh mostly encounter increased frequency of climate change induced various natural and man-made disasters as cyclones, floods, land and coastal erosion, soil and water salinity, tidal surge, droughts, the thunder storm, cold waves, insect attacks and hailstorm. In response to these climatic impacts on their livelihood assets the people adopt various adaptation strategies where poverty, gender, patriarchy, local knowledge and networks play role which was explored and examined by the present study using the integrative method of analysis i.e., integration of qualitative and quantitative methods. The thesis consists of seven chapters. Chapter one contains the introduction to the study as statement of the problem, rationale, importance, objectives, research questions, conceptual frameworks and pain and pleasure of the study. Chapter two involves review of the literature where more than 50 books, journals/articles, documents and reports related to present study were reviewed and found out the methodological and theoretical flaws, shortcomings and gaps which were intended to make up and bridge in the present study. Chapter three discusses some theories related to this study and this study was controlled and guided by the theory of cultural ecology developed by Julian Steward. Methodology of the study was discussed in chapter four where integrative method was followed i.e., qualitative methods (observation, case studies , FGDs, KIIs, In-depth interview and oral history) were supplemented by quantitative method (Sample survey). Chapter five contains the findings of qualitative study. The findings of the quantitative study were presented and analyzed with discussions in chapter six which was divided into seven sections. In first, second and third sections, the findings of demographic characteristics of interlocutors, climate change perceptions and coping mechanisms, and impacts of climate change on five livelihood assets of Bayer Char coastal community and their adaptation strategies to it were presented respectively. Sections four to six consist of impacts of poverty on adaptation strategies, the role of gender and patriarchy in adaptation and the role of local knowledge and networks in adaptation strategies of Bayer Char coastal community to ongoing climate change respectively. The special impacts of climate change on fishermen‟s life and livelihoods and their special adaptation strategies to it were presented in section seven. Chapter seven includes the concluding remarks showing the relations of data to the theories and suggesting the way out. It was explored in the present study that there is an adaptive relationship between ecology and culture i.e., between the environment and the subsistence system of Bayer Char community. Most of the time, the people of Bayer Char community use natural resources of their environment to adapt to the climatic impacts on their livelihood assets which creates the social system of Bayer Char community. Cyclone, tidal surge, water salinity and soil salinity are the most devastating climate change induced hazards that affect the livelihood assets of Bayer Char coastal community most in autumn (Bhadra-Ashwin), late autumn (KartikAugrahayan) and summer (Baishakh-Jaishthya) seasons. It was found out in the present study that the major climate change impacts on natural assets of livelihoods of coastal community are increased salinity in drinking water source and cultivable lands causing acute hunger, poverty and destitution for them; on material assets are declining production and facing hunger and malnutrition, decreasing the test of food and smaller the size of fruits, grains and trees; on human assets are food insecurity, lack of nutrition and loss of life or death due to increased drought, salinity in land and water and thunderstorm; on social assets are social and internal conflicts based on scarcity of land, food insecurity and unrest in family, poverty and failure to sustain relationship with relatives or neighbours and on physical assets are damage of house and homestead land, scarcity of house building materials, lack of shelter and damage of essential foods. It was examined in this study that the people of this coastal char adopt particular adaptation strategies to the climatic impacts on particular livelihood assets as using fitkari (Potassium Aluminum Sulphate) to clean water, using solar heat to separate sodium chloride (salinity) and clean water, reducing expenses by changing consumption as reducing the number of daily meals and adapting cropping densities are the adaptive strategies to climatic impacts on natural assets; using animals (eater bird) to feed the pests on the farm to control the insects biologically, reducing pest-inducing crop losses using different mechanisms, removal of insects by hands, cutlass or trap and strengthening the resilience of agricultural systems are the adaptive strategies to climatic impacts on material assets; taking religious education, saving life by taking shelter in relatives‟ paka (Brick-made) house and cyclone shelter, depending on traditional medicine, building educational institutions on very high places are the adaptive strategies to climatic impacts on human assets; giving more importance on mosques/temples security than their own houses, building the mentality of helping each other in climatic crises, sending women and girls to relatives‟ house and building religious and social institutions and clubs on very high places are the adaptive strategies to climatic impacts on social assets and planting trees around the house, making the foundation of dwelling house high and using iron or brick pillar in house are the adaptive strategies to climatic impacts on physical assets of livelihoods. Even they use particular adaptation strategies to the particular impacts of climatic hazards like cyclone, tidal surge, soil and water salinity, flood etc. A very surprising and peculiar strategy the people of Bayer Char coastal community frequently use as adaptation to climate change induced hazards particularly to cyclone is empowering houses or homes. They stay home during disaster to keep house strong i.e., they think if they leave home and stay outside the home (cyclone shelter or any safe places) their houses become too weak to face cyclone and the houses become destroyed. So, they stay home to strengthen their houses to fight against cyclone or any other climatic impacts on houses-their beloved physical assets. It was assessed in the present study that in their adaptation strategies poverty, gender and patriarchy play negative role. Poverty plays negative role in adaptation as poverty causes their failure to respond to water and soil salinity, difficulty or failure to livelihood diversification, failure to ensure structural societal change as deagrarianisation or industrialization and failure to buy modern technologies provide weather forecast as smart phone. It was argued in the study that generally females are more vulnerable to and affected by climate change than males but females play vital and more important role in adaptation to climate change especially in taking NGO membership for loan, preserving the fuel wood, using different water purification techniques, making and saving dry food for and during crisis time and maintaining house. In adaptation strategies boys are got preference to girls by both males and females. Patriarchy plays a vital role in adaptation strategies as wives‟ NGO membership depends on the decisions of husbands and wives‟ disaster training and capacity building activities are interrupted by husbands‟ decisions. Husbands are the decision makers in adaptation to climate change in their family. Though local knowledge and networks have some negative roles in adaptation most of the time they play important positive role as local knowledge helps to develop a detailed picture of on-farm events before, during and after the natural disasters, form a culturally appropriate and sustainable adaptation policy, identify the increasing threats and impacts of climate change, ensure understanding situation quickly, take the immediate adaptive responses, enhance farmers' adaptation potentiality to climate variability and reduce the adverse impacts of climate change. Local networks play role in arranging communal water harvesting/tanks, ensuring the access to material and non-material critical resources managed by networks, constructing traditional bridges and trail, preserving rangeland and grazing restrictions and making easy way to get loan. It was explored that climate change has special impacts on life and livelihoods of fishermen who are engaged in fishing, the second highest profession in Bayer Char coastal community. The major special impacts caused by cyclone, tidal surge, excessive fog and thunderstorm on fishermen‟s livelihoods are changing and endangering natural food cycle of fish, destroying the flock of fish, inundating inland aquaculture and fisheries, reducing primary productivity of fish, reducing mixing of water in lakes due to changing temperatures and reducing the stocks of fish. Besides different special coping mechanisms, the fishermen adopt different special adaptation strategies to climatic impacts. Some major adaptation strategies are accessing to and interpreting of warning signals, changing profession and reducing expenses by changing consumption (reducing the number of meals), frequently changing the timing and location of fishing trips, changing target species to fish with higher demand and better prices, selling and delivering seafood directly to customers instead of fishes and making the boat and launch strongly with thunder resilient roof. However, the livelihood system of coastal char community is tuned to the ecology they live in and their livelihood assets are developed as a result of interaction between culture and environment. As adaptation to climate change, they developed a unique livelihood pattern which has high vulnerability to ongoing climatic variability and this vulnerability will be much more in absence of effective institutional supports (the supports of GOs and NGOs). So, institutional supports in their basic needs and services are required to extend to reduce livelihood vulnerability and strengthen the coastal-char people‟s adaptation strategies to ongoing climate change. So, the findings of this study are expected to help government, national and international NGOs form appropriate climate change adaptation policies and programs incorporating the coastal-char community in the mainstream development so that these poor coastal-char people can successfully adapt to the upcoming more critical and vulnerable situation of climate change and save them from being „environmental refugees‟. The study is also expected to contribute to the field of knowledge generally and to the discipline of anthropology particularly.
Dalit and their Products: An Anthropological Study among the Rishi Community
(University of Dhaka, 2020-01-01) Rahman, Sk Mashudur
This is an anthropological research on Dalits and their products in South-western districts of Bangladesh. Dalit community are the largest politically, socially and economically excluded community throughout the Indian Subcontinent. They face numerous social stigma and are often classified as untouchables, a phenomenon which is deeply rooted in the history of the subcontinent. The social stigma they face across the subcontinent is often related to their work which is considered dirty in our society, which ranges from repairing footwear to cleaning human faeces. Bangladesh is no different either. Here around 5.5 million of Dalit people belonging 94 categories of Dalits, has very low standard of living (IDSN, 2006). The basic human rights as enunciated in the constitution of Bangladesh often elude them. They struggle really hard to meet their daily needs and their occupations are hardly included into the mainstream economy. The objectives of this study are to assess the present socio-economic condition, traditional knowledge and skill, key barriers of the occupation, way out of the problems and so on. The study is divided into a total of nine chapters. In chapter 1 the research introduces the problem and the background of the study and also describes the importance, theoretical framework and conceptual issues. Chapter 2 focuses more on methods and materials, the current literatures on the topic to conduct this research. Chapter 3 states the mythology of different Dalit communities and their occupation. The current socio-economic characteristics of different Dalit communities are presented in chapter 4 of the paper. Chapter 5 analyses the product and service based occupational profile of the Rishi community. Chapter 6 focuses on different types of manufacturing products produced by the Rishi community, case study findings, and theSWOT(Strengths, Weaknesses, Opportunities and Threats)analysis, seasonal calendar of each of the product. Similarly, Chapter 7 discusses the services that are provided by the Rishi Community. Chapter 8 then talks about the problems and prospects of the products and services that are being produced by the Rishi Community and finally Chapter 9 draws the conclusion and suggests way out the problems. The present study has been conducted in Dhulanda Rishi para as well as other villages of Tala Upazila under Satkhira district, a south western district of Bangladesh. The present study chooses the Rishi para in my village Dhulanda for field work due to my familiarity with the Dalitxxiii|P a g e communities. In consultation with the local NGOs (Paritran, Bhumija Foundation and Uttaran) the present study was conducted among the 37 villages of 12 unions under Tala Upazila. This anthropological study has been conducted using different types of anthropological research methods and techniques conforming to the objectives of the study. An integrated approach (qualitative and quantitative) has been taken for the purpose of the study. The data has been collected, analyzed and presented at different levels like-individual, household, and community. This chapter is going to deal with some important aspects such as- methodology, methods and techniques, research design, literature reviews and other relevant issues Theoretical framework is the foundation for understanding the research issues and linkage among the different variables. It helps as a guiding principle for analyzing the research issues. In this section the study focuses on some important issues related to conceptualization of the three phenomena such as class, caste and economic principles implicated in a social system, which is the major cause of caste inequality. The study further focuses on how these issues lead to the Dalits social deprivation. Karl Marx and Weberian theory, subaltern theory, capability theory and Ambedkarism have been used in this study. This framework helps to conceptualize the development paradigm in the context of Dalit communities in Bangladesh. The comprehensive reviewing of the literature was an important segment for this study. Because it provides an up-to-date data for understanding the subject and identifying the methods used in previous research on the topic. Moreover the literary works provided information corresponding to the present research findings. The reviewed literature acted as a stepping-stone towards achievement of the study objectives. In fact, the literatures reviews provided a solid background to back one’s investigation and helped to understand the nature of Dalits and their development. The present study has attempted to examine the mythological connection of different groups of Rishi Community such as dwelling pattern of Rishi community, different mythologies, different aspects of Rishis background, untouchability and the origin of Rishi Community, traditional skills, skinning and skin trade, etc. They are of sewing and making footwear, drum and musicianmaking groups, and contemporary involvement of making different products and so on. The products produced by them are cane crafts, bamboo crafts, fattening of cows, goats, cocks,xxiv|P a g e breeding of cows and goats (semen insemination), making drums, manufacturing footwear, footwear polishing or repairing, making home appliances or showpieces, wooden products, raw skin processing, working as porters,barbers and village security persons. Access to basic amenities such as safe drinking water, electicity, sanitation, health care and communication are impertive for a decent life. The need for these basic amenities has been universally recognized. In Rishi community majority of people who are residing in Kancha houses are using kancha latrines. Education level of the respondents is absolutely low and the average land size per house hold is only 0.13 acres. Majority stated that due to inadequacy of food they are unable to take food 3 times a day. The respondents in different occupations are relying on their own funds than on government support for operating their daily activities. . The main occupation of Rishi community and their products or services, their involvement of other type of products or services, learning process, selling process, income, disease due to occupation. Around 64% of the respondents are in the age group of 36-59 years, 27% in the category of 18-35 years and 10% above 60 years. It is interesting to note that 7.5% of respondents belonged to cane craft and raw skin processing while 7% belong to semen supply, drum making and footwear repairing.4.5% in the age group of 18-35 years are involved in wood related works and raw skin processing. In the case of respondents with age above 60, most of them are involved in bamboo craft followed by drum making. Majority of respondents are in the age group of 18-35, 36-59 and above 60 are involved in some activity or the other. Regarding distribution of occupation with respect of age, the results revealed that majority (62%) of the respondents are in the age group of 36-59 years and 14% are involved in raw skin processing and 12% in cane craft and other dominant occupations are cattle fattening through castration and bamboo crafting. With regard to category of 18-35 years, which constituted 22% the dominant occupations, most of them were found to be engaged in raw skin processing. Different types of householdhead’s occupational profiles have been studied intensively and with special attention to the traditionally skilled people from Rishi community. In Rishi community chief employment lies in manufacturing product for use or sale using labor, tool, chemical or formulation. It is sometimes more precisely expressed as artisanal handicraft, a wide variety ofxxv|P a g e types of work, where useful and decorative objects are made completely by hand or by using only simple tools. It is a traditional main sector of craft for Rishi people and applies to a wide range of creative activities that are related to making things with one's hands and skill, including work with bamboo, cane, leather, jute, plant fibers, etc. In this chapter an attempt is made to discuss in detail 6 manufacturing related groups viz., bamboo craft, cane craft, carpentry, showpiece maker, footwear craft maker, drum maker and player. Case studies of successful people under each occupation are presented. A detailed seasonal calendar with SWOT analysis is given at the end. Services are activities that are provided by a section of people in Rishi community, such as semen insemination through male goats rearing, cattle castration, raw skin processing and footwear repairing.According to economic theory, consumption of goods and services is assumed to provide utility (satisfaction) to the consumer or end-user, although businesses also consume goods and services in the course of producing other services. Services in a Dalit community have different dimensions. If you employ a person and pay them a regular wage or salary, they are an employee. If you negotiate a contract with an individual to provide a service, with that person billing you for services rendered, that person is a contractor. In general, a person who provides a professional service is called a consultant. In this chapter an attempt is made to discuss in detail 4 service providing groups. Case studies of successful people under each occupation are presented. A detailed seasonalcalendar with SWOT analysis is given at the end. The study has been carried out to unfold the development features of Rishi community. However, it was also needed to explore the social dynamics of Rishi community. Most of the Rishi Community people do not have any marketing strategy for their products. They lack capital, skills, modern technology, marketing facilities and financial inclusion which are identified as the key threat to their development. The research has also revealed that there is a need among the Rishi Community for enhancing their skills through various trainings. They also need capital support to sustain their industries and policy support from the government. However, considering all these issues it is revealed that the Rishi Community in Bangladesh is largely ignored and kept aside in our society. Their products are being used by us everyday, yet the social stigma surrounding them decreases their market opportunities thus reducing their livelihood. This paper explores in details, the historical causes of the social stigma around thexxvi|P a g e Dalit population and took sample from south west coastal areas of Bangladesh to understand the current occupations they are involved in and the problems they are facing. It has been identified from the paper that the historical and cultural barriers are the biggest threat to the livelihood of Rishi community. Moreover, modern technology is also replacing their traditional occupation. Thus in order tobring the Rishi community in the mainstream economy it is very important to increase their market capabilities and protect and promote their traditional practices. The recommendations from this paper can be basis to start from, which can be further explored through more research to have definitiveanswers. I would like to conclude by reiterating Amartya Sen’s famous quote “Poverty is not just lack of money, it is not having the capability to realize one’s full potential as a human being”.
Dynamics of Juvenile Delinquency and its Legal Implication: An Anthropological Study
(University of Dhaka, 2019-05-13) Sharmin, Sabina
This anthropological study titled “Dynamics of Juvenile Delinquency and its Legal Implication: An Anthropological Study” has been conducted on the multiple dimensions of the problem juvenile delinquency and its legal issues relating to correctional process and practices. The major objectives of this study were to understand the dynamics of juvenile delinquency and its legal implication and these have been discussed through two Sections: 1) Dynamics of juvenile delinquency, 2) Legal Implication. The dynamics of juvenile delinquency has been focused on the diversified aspects of delinquent behavior: demographic dimension, socio-economic dimension, ecological dimension and finally its nature and causes has been addressed significantly. On the other hand, legal aspect has been displayed through focusing on the major legal apparatus that has been empowered by the law to address the issues legally. In this regard the Children Act 2013 has been considered as the main legal responsible entity to address the children who come into conflict with the law. In Bangladesh society, there exists centralized government and it has legitimized power or authority. Legal authority can use the power to force compliance with rules or laws. It has law enforces agency, i.e. Police department, Courts i.e. Judge, Adjudication and Detention Centers i.e. CDC to address and determine the outcome of problems of juvenile delinquency. In this society, government through formulating Children Act, 2013, engaged the above three legal apparatus to solve the problem legally. Though the Act involve others intuitions also, they do play little role. So, the current study focused on the main three organs which play the vibrant role in the implementation of government rules as well as the correctional process of the juveniles’ antisocial behavior. Therefore, to reach a fuller understanding of the legal implication related to juvenile delinquency in Bangladesh, this study has seen the legal system from the perspective of rule-governed as well as procedural flexibility and compromise, which is considered as legal anthropological study. A brief literature review of existing literatures was done carefully. Researchers examined previous writings on the subject and used that background as a basis of this study to develop a greater understanding about the causes, trends, nature and the legal aspects in dealing with the delinquent children. In this regard at first the global literatures were reviewed briefly. Then the national literature was analysis. An endeavor has been taken to include all the literatures from pre independent to recent studies on this matter. Finally, legal anthropological literatures have been reviewed. Though the legal anthropological literatures did not directly analysis the juvenile delinquency issues, its criminological and legal analysis helps a lot to uncover the anthropological nature of analysis. The literatures which have been studied thoroughly were very much relevant to the objectives of this study. The theoretical and conceptual understanding of this study was based on various explanations regarding the juvenile delinquency issues, its causation and legal aspects. In this regard, the theoretical perspective has been constructed after analyzing some prominent theories and it was done in an intensive way. Though these approaches have been dominated mainly criminological and sociological domain, it has more relevancies to analysis the causal factors of the juvenile delinquency. As the objective of this study is to analysis the dynamics of juvenile delinquency and its legal implication from anthropological perspective; theoretical construction has been made on legal anthropological theories alongside with some prominent and relevant sociological as well as criminological theories. In this regard to explain the dynamics of juvenile delinquency, Sutherland (1939), Hirschi and Gottfredson (1990), Agnew (1992), Regoli and Hewitt’s (2000), perceptions are found relevant in this study. On the other hand, correctional process has been discussed on the basis of Foucault’s (1975) thought of penitentiary panopticon. The concept of juvenile delinquency has been analyzed from different perspectives as it has been considered a multi-disciplinary field of inquiry. Deviant behavior is recognized as a socio-cultural problem and at the same time, also a legal phenomenon. So it has been seen as cultural entity and anthropologist seen deviance as disputes. So, most of the anthropologist examined the various types of disputes among various cultural settings or societies as well as their dispute management systems (Malinnowski, 1926; Hoebel, 1941; Nader, 1990). For this reason, the concept of juvenile delinquency is merged, most times, with the criminality or offence or disputes, therefore the existence of ambiguity in the use of terms such as crime, delinquency, etc. Bortner, (1988) argued that, the most widely recognized and consequential definitions of delinquency are those contained in legal statues. In Bangladesh, according to the child act, 2013, criminal responsibility of a child is the age limit between 9-18 years. The legal definition of delinquency which governed the children criminal behavior in Bangladesh society has been used as the concept of juvenile delinquency. An integrated approach was taken as the methodological basis of this study. Though it was the combination of qualitative and quantitative methods, emphasis was given on qualitative approach. From data collection to in-depth analysis, techniques and tools of qualitative method was considered as the key of this study. The methods include observation, life history, case study, Key Informant Interview (KII). 5 life histories, 15 case studies and 8 KII were conducted in one-year period of field work started from May, 2015 to April, 2016. To collect the qualitative data different checklist were prepared and used in this study. However, some quantitative methods have been used when and wherever it was needed. In this regard, as a method of data collection, sample survey was used and tabular and graphic presentations were applied to supplement the qualitative analysis. In this regard an interview schedule was prepared and used. The methodology establishes the research’s epistemological and ontological positions, as well as justified the chosen methods. When the field activities were carried on a total number of 387 accused juvenile delinquents were kept in Tongi, Gagipur, CDC for different cases. Among them 188 juveniles were stayed over three months and this number of juveniles constituted the sampling frame. In Konabari, Gagipur, CDC the female accused delinquents were only 8. By using the statistical formula, the sample size was determined as 161 and it was convenient for an individual study. The result indicated that now-a-days juveniles are involved in criminal activities to a large extent. They committed violent and serious crime also. Though there exist numerical difference between boys and girls; severity does not differ. Both male and female juvenile involve heinous crime like murder, abductions, trafficking, theft, rape etc. Age is also an important indicator to make variation in delinquency. It has been revealed from this study that a particular age group is more prone to commit both serious and non-serious crime. The study, instead, have revealed the fundamental cause of juvenile delinquency in Bangladesh The fundamental basic and undisputed cause of juvenile delinquency is poverty; parents as well as their intrinsic needs compelled them to engage illegal activities. The next cause has been found to be poor if not poorest parental care of the destitute children; no affection, no care, no supervision, inadequate mental and material support. Next, disrupted family environment, absence of either parent, particularly mother, quarrelsome and analphabetic family background is found to be major cause. The next fundamental cause is found to be the peer pressure; peer or neighborhood instigation. The other fundamental causes of juvenile delinquency are revengeful attitude, favorable environment, land dispute, objectification of women and so on. It has been found that a different set of causes is responsible for each individual case. From this study, it is clear that the legal process and practices that is applied to deal with the juvenile delinquents has been largely lacks the real procedure. The fair treatment of juvenile, from arrest to release is an important issue to be considered by the three organs which are responsible in addressing the juvenile delinquency. Both the qualitative and quantitative data indicates that police administrations are the worst section that severely violated the legal process. In the court the authorities do little care about the legal and child right aspect of juveniles. CDC as the correctional institutes lack manpower, budget allocation, and infrastructure and so on. Moreover, the existing prison culture within CDCs demonstrated the dual administrations are simultaneously going on in the CDC. The CDCs authorities are the legal apparatus to address the juveniles; on the other hand, the so called baro vai is the reality who exercises power over the junior inmates in the name of discipline within the CDC. Therefore, the legal process and practices that are going on in our juvenile justice system are far from the directives of law. It has been revealed that the Police administration lacks trainings, motivations skills and infrastructure to deal with the children, the court personnel lack sincerity to establish the legal procedure and finally the correctional centers lack all kinds of facilities for correctional activities. All together these lacks make the reintegration of the juvenile offenders in the society is almost impractical. So, a ‘humanistic and holistic’ approach is needed to address the juvenile delinquency in Bangladesh.
Elusive villages: social structure and community organization in rural east Pakistan
(©University of Dhaka, 2024-03-19) Bertocci, Peter J.
From Credit to Capabilities: Assessing the Role of Microfinance in Expanding Instrumental Freedom and Fostering Development in Southwest Bangladesh
(© University of Dhaka, 2025-07-07) Das, Atanu
Microfinance undeniably constitutes a subject of extensive and contemporary relevance, both in Bangladesh and across the international landscape, amid the rush of diverse initiatives aimed at attaining development, and countering the persistent prevalence of poverty across nations. The purpose of this mixed-method study is to explore the empirical and intuitive aspects of microfinance and to examine the role of microfinance as a development initiative in terms of its influence on poverty reduction outcomes, in particular on human capabilities. To understand and rationalize the role of microfinance, this study emphasizes the human-centered approach, adopting Sen's capability approach from a broader perspective that includes capabilities, functionings, and agency. The findings of this study reveal the vulnerable and very vulnerable role of microfinance in extending instrumental freedoms and substantive freedoms, correspondingly. This does not portray the role of microfinance as worthy of praise, but rather as being considered perilous. In essence, this circumstance makes microfinance more worthy of criticism than praise, accentuating its shortcomings rather than extolling its virtues. Again, in most instances, microfinance cannot contribute resiliently to eliminating various deprivations of basic capabilities. Instead, it contributes to creating more vulnerable situations by exacerbating multidimensional deprivations of basic capabilities, albeit in varying degrees, reflecting the existence of poverty and unfreedoms among microfinance clients. As a result, it can be perceived that microfinance is not able to guarantee development among microfinance clients. This study suggests that if the microfinance initiative is designed to focus on the aspirations of the microfinance clients and on enhancing their freedoms or capabilities to achieve functionings they (microfinance participants) value and have reason to value, then this initiative can end many controversies around and arguably reap rewards.
Gender Violence Among The Urban Dwellers In Dhaka City
(University of Dhaka, 2019-12-10) Zahan, Nasrin
Present research has identified gender based violence as one o f the social problems in the study area threatening to social harmony and peaceful family life. It has brought about insights how the social values, beliefs, customs, and convictions in a male centric culture like Bangladesh make the settings for gender based violence in domestic and public areas. This study explores main facets o f gender violence in urban Dhaka with underlying causes and impacts as well. It regards gender violence in urban area is distinct from rural area in nature and types. Its nature o f cruelty and sufferer experience varies from place to place on ground o f socio-economic status o f both victim and culprit. Undertaking anthropological insights on male-female dichotomy with grave concern, this study exploited observation, key informant, case study, household census, semi-structured interview and focus group discussion with a view to bringing about research outcome justifiable both from qualitative and quantitative perspective in a triangulated form. Subsequent number o f women encounters gender violence both in home and outside while their story remains untold due to various social facts internalized by the study. It successfiilly addressed factors that make urban women more fragile to face gender violence; patriarchy, poor education, network and training, absence o f rule o f law, legislative lengthiness and victim stigmatization. In addition to vulnerability factors, this study identifies issues that exacerbate gender violence; women complexion, dowry, pornography, indictment, mental distance and communication gap, drug addiction, lack of economic empowerment, polygyny, affairs, expectation of baby boy, the culture of wife beating, unemployment and poverty, absence of social and religious norms and values, open internet access, and unplanned urbanization and public transportation system. Working women shockingly report that the amount o f gender violence in public domain is increasing day by day and the possible reason behind this is long term detachment o f urban lower status men from sexual partner or wife. Emphasizing on Ardener's Muted Group theory, this study found male centric society predominates and set forth model that make women silent to abide by men suppression in the form o f violence and not to resist it. Among various types o f gender violence identified by this study, mental violence is like silent killer which does not have remedies and resistance at all. Because most o f the incidences o f mental violence by intimate partner remain in domestic sphere no one can know. Insult or humiliation by husband is the most common form o f mental violence that causes extreme suffering for women. Prevalent types o f gender violence in public domain encountered by women are improper sexual comments and unwanted touching on sexual organs o f women body. This anthropological in-depth study has observed victims sufferings very closely that it sorted out some ways out to reduce women vulnerability to, and protect from gender violence
Indigenous Knowledge and Prospects of Sustainable Agriculture in Bangladesh An Anthropological in Bangladesh: An Anthropological investigation
(©University of Dhaka, 2024-03-19) Mallick, Dwijendra Lal
Institutional Credit and Rural Development in Bangladesh An Anthropological Study
(©University of Dhaka, 2024-03-19) Sultana, Rana
Narratives of Struggle and the Inclusion of Physically Challenged Women in the Garment Manufacturing Industries of Bangladesh
(©University of Dhaka, 2023-07-26) Nasrain, Mosammat Shamima
Physically challenged women signify a substantial part of the global population and encounter numerous adversities in developing countries. O’Reilly and International Labour Office (2007) mentioned that physically challenged women confront more significant difficulties and challenges than their male peers in Bangladesh. They face double discrimination due to their gender and physical impairment in seeking healthcare, education, vocational training and employment opportunities. They are hardly included in the mainstream labour market through rehabilitation programmes and are less likely to get equality in training, and if they acquire successful vocational training, they are more likely to work part time jobs or remain unemployed. In Bangladesh, among the non-government organisations working for physically challenged persons, the Centre for Rehabilitation of the Paralysed (CRP) has been prominently providing an extensive range of high quality services to physically challenged people since its establishment in 1979. CRP- Ganakbari is a sub-centre of the main centre, which plays a significant role in including physically challenged women into mainstream society and running successful Income Generating Activities (IGA) by providing them vocational training facilities. Marks and Spencer, a world known retailer, started the Marks & Start project in Bangladesh to train and employ physically challenged persons. CRP, Marks and Spencer have joint forces since 2006 to train physically challenged women in industrial sewing and employ them in Marks and Spencer sourcing garment manufacturing industries in Bangladesh. The study aims to narrate the struggle and inclusion of physically challenged women in garment manufacturing industries. The thesis is based on the primary data collected from physically challenged women in garment manufacturing industries regarding their experiences during 2018-2019. The study was conducted in two garment manufacturing industries- Rupali Garment Manufacturing Industry and Sonali Garment Manufacturing Industry (pseudo names) where physically challenged women are referred for employment under the Marks & Start project run by Marks and Spencer Company and CRP’s partnership. Detailed narratives and in-depth information was gathered from 50 respondents by applying various methods and techniques. Though physically challenged women were the principal respondents, rehabilitation personnel of CRP and staff of garment manufacturing industries and community people were also included as the research respondents to know about various issues on their life struggles and inclusion in the garment manufacturing industries. The reflexive position of the researcher has enriched the data collection and analysis. It includes Bourdieu’s Theory of Practice and Foucault’s power, knowledge and discourse for analysing the research findings. The study identified that physically challenged women have various impairments and thus covered all types of them to identify whether any particular impairment has more challenges for inclusion and retainment in the labour force of garment manufacturing industries. Impairment by birth, fever, accident and family based violence, including the violence of husband are identified as the primary causes of their physical impairment. Lack of timely proper treatment is an issue for physical impairment for many; majority of the informants informed that first, their parents took them to traditional healers such as kabiraj, fakir and hujur for treatment; when their physical condition deteriorated, then they were taken to physicians. Ultimately, they could not continue the treatment for lack of funds and returned to the kabiraj. Most of the informants’ struggle for livelihood started after their father’s death and, in some cases, when their parents depended on their brothers’ income for living. Being neglected, they tried to escape the family chaos and began searching for their subsistence. Most physically challenged women have secondary education but could not pass SSC primarily because of economic adversity. Several of them started working as domestic help, garment industry workers, and tailors, and some worked as teachers at different NGO schools for physically challenged children and adults. They heard about the inclusion of physically challenged women in garment manufacturing industries of the CRP programme from their relatives, neighbours, Upazila Social Welfare Office, distant villagers, locals who work at CRP and sometimes from other physically challenged women. It seems that Bourdieu’s social and cultural capital fits well for their reaching to CRP. Upon arrival at CRP, the doctors, physiotherapists, occupational therapists and social workers checked their physical impairment and assessed each physically challenged woman to decide the appropriate treatment and skills training suited her individually. The programme encourages the trainees to aim for high quality during the training and become competent professionals in their respective fields. Trainees receive completion certificates after the training programme, which may be an institutional cultural capital in the field of employment. During training, the social welfare and compliance officers from different industries visit and select physically challenged women trainees according to their industry needs. Marks and Spencer company bears the expense of each trainee 50 per cent, and the industry owner (who selects them) bears 50 per cent. In completing training under the Marks & Start project, the garment manufacturing industry’s authority picks physically challenged women from CRP and tests their skills. If they pass the skill test, the authority recruits them as machine operators. If they fail, the garment manufacturing industries either recruit them as assistant operators or send them to the industry training centre to develop their skills. The physically challenged workers enjoy some facilities while simultaneously encountering some significant challenges. Though the terms and conditions of physically challenged and regular workers are equal, the management deals with them more humanely and has some unwritten facilities for them. The most significant challenges the physically challenged women confront in working the garment manufacturing industry are accessibility problems, incompatible per hour production targets, timing problems, accommodation, lack of recreation and long working hours, which affect their vulnerable health. However, most physically challenged women said about their excellent relationships with supervisors and co-workers regarding the work environment. Informants are usually satisfied with their job, have no intention to switch, and want no further training. Among the 34 physically challenged women, 19 are leading conjugal lives though more physically challenged women are officially married. Most of the physically challenged women of the study bear their family expenses from their earnings as their husbands have irregular income, are unemployed, and depend on their income. Their expenses are mainly house rent, daily food, parents’ necessities, rearing children, tuition fees of children and siblings and medical costs. Only seven physically challenged women’s husbands have a regular income and contribute to family expenses. Abandoned, physically challenged women with children and those having children and husbands without a regular income are economically vulnerable. Despite economic vulnerability, 41 per cent of the physically challenged women have some savings. Many informants said that family members thought of them as a burden before working in the garment manufacturing industries. Some community members look down upon them for their physical impairment and for working in the garment manufacturing industries. The attitudes of the family and community members became positive towards them when they started to contribute to their families and act as agents by working in the garment manufacturing industries. Positive attitudes towards physically challenged women influence their inclusion in the family, community, workplace and everywhere in society and encourage them to accomplish fundamental goals. The research findings indicate that it may take time to change the attitude toward physically challenged women at the individual or community level but not impossible. This research expects to contribute to future studies by providing reliable information about physically challenged women, their life struggle and inclusion in garment manufacturing industries, as there is hardly any study in this area. These findings would also help the policymakers to develop a systematic and logical policy addressing the inclusion of physically challenged women.
Practice of ethno-medicine among the Manipuris of Bangladesh: An anthropological study
(University of Dhaka, 2019-07-17) Mahmood, Nazia